Lessons from the Field: Advancing Micro-hydro Initiatives for Community-Based Sustainable Forest Management
Main Article Content
Abstract
For forest-dependent communities, especially in the global South, one of the major issues is access to clean and reliable energy. On the other hand, ongoing forest degradation driven by unsustainable practices and pressures of climate change poses a high risk to the important watershed function to support community resilience. This study investigates the role of Micro-Hydro Power Plants (MHPPs) as incentive-based instruments within Community-Based Sustainable Forest Management (CBSFM) frameworks. The research methodology is structured into three key phases: (1) identification and spatial mapping of MHPP initiatives; (2) classification of projects based on physical, socio-economic, and institutional attributes; and (3) analysis and synthesis to identify critical success factors and potential barriers. The study shows that key success factors include active community engagement, the implementation of Payment for Watershed Ecosystem Services (PWES) schemes, and a metaphorical “perpetual motion” approach, where initial external support is gradually replaced by community-based self-management. Challenges such as technical constraints, environmental risks, and social dynamics are also discussed, along with solution-oriented approaches through participatory planning, data-driven site selection, and strengthening local institutions. This article provides practical guidance for policy makers and field actors in integrating energy access, forest conservation, and sustainable rural development through an adaptive and locally based ecosystem approach.
Article Details
Articles published in International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management are following the license Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0)
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License: Attribution - NonCommercial - NoDerivs (by-nc-nd). Further information about Creative Commons
Authors can archive post-print (final draft post-refereering) on personal websites or institutional repositories under these conditions:
- Publishers version cannot be stored elsewhere but on publishers homepage
- Published source must be acknowledged
- Must link to publisher version
References
1. FAO, IUFRO, and USDA, A guide to forest-water management. FAO Forestry Paper. Vol. No. 185. 2021, Rome: FAO, IUFRO, USDA.https://doi.org/10.4060/cb6473en
2. Lee, S.M., et al., Forests, fuelwood and livelihoods—energy transition patterns in eastern Indonesia. Energy Policy, 2015. 85: p. 61-70.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2015.04.030
3. Nugroho, H.Y.S.H., et al., Toward Water, Energy, and Food Security in Rural Indonesia: A Review. Water, 2022. 14(10): p. 1645.https://doi.org/10.3390/w14101645
4. Pandyaswargo, A.H., et al., A needs-based approach to sustainable energy use: case studies of four remote villages in Indonesia. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 2024.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-05572-8
5. Ogujiuba, K. and N. Muazu, Unclean Energy Source Dependence and Sustainability in Nigeria: Consumption Dynamics and Impact of Contextual Factors. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 2022. 12(6): p. 495-504.https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.13663
6. Chia, E.L., et al., Securing well-being with the advent of climate hazards: Case of forest-dependent communities in a landscape in the Congo Basin. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 2016. 8(2): p. 175-193.https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-04-2014-0048
7. Gómez, M.F. and S. Silveira, Delivering off-grid electricity systems in the Brazilian Amazon. Energy for Sustainable Development, 2012. 16(2): p. 155-167.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.01.007
8. Lembi, R., et al., Towards energy justice and energy sovereignty: Participatory co-design of off-grid systems in the Brazilian Amazon. Energy Research & Social Science, 2025. 119: p. 103858.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2024.103858
9. da Silva Pereira, J., et al. Electrification in Remote Regions: An Analysis of the More Light for Amazon Program. Energies, 2023. 16, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en16124663.
10. Soriano-Hernández, P., A. Mejía-Montero, and D. van der Horst, Characterisation of energy poverty in Mexico using energy justice and econophysics. Energy for Sustainable Development, 2022. 71: p. 200-211.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2022.09.005
11. Mahmoudi, B., et al., Forest Dwellers’ Dependence on Forest Resources in Semi-Arid Environments. Sustainability, 2023. 15(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032689
12. TEMPO. Menggali Akar Kemiskinan Masyarakat Kawasan Hutan. 2023 [cited 2024 12 April 2024]; 17 Nopember 2023:[Available from: https://koran.tempo.co/read/lingkungan/485605/mengapa-masyarakat-kawasan-hutan-miskin.
13. Menteri Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan PEMANFAATAN AIR DAN ENERGI AIR DI SUAKA MARGASATWA, TAMAN NASIONAL, TAMAN HUTAN RAYA, DAN TAMAN WISATA ALAM, in Berita Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 2019 Nomor 456, K.H.D.H.A.M. Dirjen Peraturan Peundang-Undangan, Republik Indonesia, Editor. 2019, Kementeraian Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan: Jakarta
14. Nugroho, H.Y.S.H. Mikrohidro Partisipatif di Sulawesi. 2021 [cited 2024 12 April 2024]; April-Juni 2021:[Available from: https://www.forestdigest.com/detail/1096/cara-membangun-pembangkit-mikrohidro.
15. IHA. Small Hydropower: Engaging with Local Communities 2024 [cited 2025 30 March 2025]; 13/8/24:[Available from: https://www.hydropower.org/blog/small-hydropower-engaging-with-local-communities.
16. Siregar, Y.I., Ranking of energy sources for sustainable electricity generation in Indonesia: A participatory multi-criteria analysis. International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management, 2022. 35: p. 45-64.https://doi.org/10.54337/ijsepm.7241
17. Nugroho, H.Y.S.H., et al., A Chronicle of Indonesia’s Forest Management: A Long Step towards Environmental Sustainability and Community Welfare. Land, 2023. 12(6): p. 1238.https://doi.org/10.3390/land12061238
18. Setiawan, O., et al., A suitability modeling based on geographic information system for potential micro hydropower dam site. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 2024. 10(2): p. 713-732.10.22034/gjesm.2024.02.18
19. pulausumbawanews. PLTMH Baturotok Mangkrak, Komisi II Lapor ke Kejaksaan. 2016; 30 Agustus 2016:[Available from: https://pulausumbawanews.net/2016/08/30/pltmh-baturotok-mangkrak-komisi-ii-lapor-ke-kejaksaan/.
20. Kurniawan, V.A., P.Y. Pradheksa, and R. Saleh, The failure of micro-hydro technology: A case study of the Banyubiru project in Central Java, Indonesia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Transition, 2024. 5: p. 100081.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rset.2024.100081
21. Jurnalis. Proyek Gagal PLTMH Nanga Obat Harus Diproses Secara Hukum. 2021 [cited 2025 26 Desember 2025]; 14 Desember 2021:[Available from: https://jurnalis.co.id/2021/12/14/proyek-gagal-pltmh-nanga-obat-harus-diproses-secara-hukum/.
22. Arumingtyas, L. Pil Pahit Proyek Energi Air di Papua Barat. 2020; 19 November 2020:[Available from: https://mongabay.co.id/2020/11/19/pil-pahit-proyek-energi-air-di-papua-barat/.
23. Pramono, A. Warga Soroti Proyek PLTM Mangkrak di Sinjai, Kabel Menjuntai Halangi Jalan 2023 [cited 2025 12 Mei 2025]; 11 Oktober 2023:[Available from: https://www.detik.com/sulsel/berita/d-6976705/warga-soroti-proyek-pltm-mangkrak-di-sinjai-kabel-menjuntai-halangi-jalan.
24. Redaksi Newstizen Kolam Renang hingga PLTMH Mangkrak, Pengelolaan Dana Desa Nonblok Dipertanyakan. 2025 [cited 2025 12 Mei 2025]; 27 Januari 2025:[Available from: https://newstizen.co.id/2025/01/27/kolam-renang-hingga-pltmh-mangkrak-pengelolaan-dana-desa-nonblok-dipertanyakan/.
25. Vickram, S., et al., Micro-Hydro Systems: Empowering Rural Communities with Small-Scale Solutions. Nanotechnology Perceptions, 2024.https://doi.org/10.62441/nano-ntp.vi.993
26. Rahman, M.F.A., et al., Unlocking the potential of micro-hydropower in water distribution networks: a comprehensive systematic review for Malaysia’s sustainable energy future. Discover Sustainability, 2025. 6(1): p. 56.https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-00818-5
27. Karapici, V., et al., Opportunities of hidden hydropower technologies towards the energy transition. Energy Reports, 2024. 12: p. 5633-5647.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2024.11.039
28. Handayani, I.G.A.K.R., C. Yosiana, and S. Kongrawd, Reform of Environmental Approval Policy for Renewable Energy in Indonesia. Journal of Sustainable Development and Regulatory, 2025. Vol. 3 No. 2.https://doi.org/10.53955/jsderi.v3i2.101
29. Sehaba, B., The Inductive Method and Its Path within Experimental Studies. Pakistan Journal of Life and Social Sciences (PJLSS), 2024. 22.https://doi.org/10.57239/PJLSS-2024-22.2.00176
30. Thomas, D.R., A General Inductive Approach for Analyzing Qualitative Evaluation Data. American Journal of Evaluation, 2006. 27(2): p. 237-246.https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748
31. IESR, Navigating Indonesia's Energy Transition at the Crossroads: A Pivotal Moment for Redefining the Future, in Indonesia Energy Transition Outlook 2025 2024, Institute for Essential Services Reform: Jakarta
32. ESDM. Potensi Energi Baru Terbarukan (EBT) Indonesia. 2008 [cited 2025 13 Agustus 2025]; 24 Agustus 2008:[Available from: https://www.esdm.go.id/id/media-center/arsip-berita/potensi-energi-baru-terbarukan-ebt-indonesia.
33. Cruz-Pérez, N., et al., SWOT Analysis of the Benefits of Hydropower Energy in Four Archipelagos. Civil Engineering Journal, 2024. 10(7): p. 2370-2383.https://doi.org/10.28991/CEJ-2024-010-07-019
34. WISIONS. The Success and Struggles of Nepal's Micro-Hydro Projects. 2023 [cited 2024 18 August 2024]; 3 July 2023:[Available from: https://www.wisions.net/the-success-and-struggles-of-nepals-micro-hydro-projects/.
35. Schneider, S., A. Abraham, and M. Yetano Roche, Community ownership models for decentralised renewables in the global south: a review and research agenda. International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management, 2025. 46: p. 58-77.https://doi.org/10.54337/ijsepm.8621
36. Cunha, J. and P.V. Ferreira, A Risk Analysis of Small-Hydro Power (SHP) Plants Investments. International Journal of Sustainable Energy Planning and Management, 2014. 2(0): p. 47-62.https://doi.org/10.5278/ijsepm.2014.2.5
37. Pradheksa, P.Y., A.P. Cahya, and D. and Tamitiadini, Public Engagement in Micro-hydro Technology in Central Java: A Call to Decentralize the Energy System. East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal, 2024. 18(1): p. 70-86.https://doi.org/10.1080/18752160.2023.2233832
38. Ellison, D., et al., Trees, forests and water: Cool insights for a hot world. Global Environmental Change, 2017. 43: p. 51-61.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2017.01.002
39. Ellison, D., M. Futter, and K. Bishop, On the forest cover-water yield debate: From demand- to supply-side thinking. Global Change Biology, 2012. 18: p. 806-820.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02589.x
40. Edy, J. and T. Surya Dharma, Pengaruh Hutan dalam Pengaturan Tata Air dan Proses Sedimentasi Daerah Aliran Sungai (DAS) : Studi Kasus di DAS Cisadane. Jurnal Penelitian Sosial dan Ekonomi Kehutanan, 2011. 8(2): p. 155-176.https://doi.org/10.20886/jphka.2011.8.2.155-176
41. Chen, X., et al., Quantitative association between the water yield impacts of forest cover changes and the biophysical effects of forest cover on temperatures. Journal of Hydrology, 2021. 600: p. 126529.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126529
42. Nugroho, H.Y.S.H. and M.K. Sallata, PLTMH (Pembangkit Listrik Tenaga Mikro Hidro) Panduan Lengkap Membuat Sumber Energi Terbarukan Secara Swadaya. 2015, Yogyakarta: Penerbit Andi
43. Maharjan, S. and R. Shrestha, Technical Problem Analysis of Micro Hydro Plants: A Case Study at Pokhari Chauri of Kavre District. Journal of the Institute of Engineering, 2014. Vol. 10, No. 1: p. 149–156.http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jie.v10i1.10896
44. Hadiyanto, D., et al., An Indicator and Evaluation Criteria for Off-Grid Micro-Hydro Power Sustainability Assessment. International Journal of Renewable Energy Research-IJRER, 2019. 9 (3): p. 15. https://doi.org/10.20508/ijrer.v9i3.9498.g7740
45. Tsoeu-Ntokoane, S., et al., Community imaginaries, participation and acceptance of renewable energy projects – substituting the quicksand of development with rocky fundamentals. Cogent Social Sciences, 2024. 10(1): p. 2292755.https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2292755
46. Wijenayake, T. Small hydropower projects and human issues. 2016 [cited 2025 26 August 2025]; May 18, 2016:[Available from: https://peersl.wordpress.com/2016/05/18/small-hydropower-projects-and-human-issues/?utm_source=chatgpt.com.
47. Pradheksa, P.Y., P.C. Arimbi, and D. Tamitiadini, Public Engagement in Micro-hydro Technology in Central Java: A Call to Decentralize the Energy System. East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal, 2024. 18(1): p. 70-86.https://doi.org/10.1080/18752160.2023.2233832
48. Republik Indonesia Perlindungan dan Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup. Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 2009 nomor 140 ed. Kementerian Hukum dan Hak Asasi Manusia 2009: Undang Udang Nomor 32 Tahun 2009
49. Khairiah, R.N., et al., Monitoring Model of Payment for Environmental Service (PES) Implementation in Cidanau Watershed with stands Density Approach. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 2016. 33: p. 269-278.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2016.03.078
50. Suich, H., et al., Payments for ecosystem services in Indonesia. Oryx, 2017. 51(3): p. 489-497.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605316000259
51. Nugroho, H.Y.S.H., I.N. Dewi, and M.K. Sallata, Pengelolaan Daerah Aliran Sungai (DAS) dan Konservasi Tanah: Menjaga Keseimbangan Ekosistem Air dan Tanah. 2022, Yogjakarta: Andi Publisher. 528
52. Britannica, T. Perpetual Motion. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2023 [cited 2023 May 26]; Available from: https://www.britannica.com/science/perpetual-motion.
53. Abdi, H., M. Shahbazitabar, and B. Mohammadi-Ivatloo, Food, Energy and Water Nexus: A Brief Review of Definitions, Research, and Challenges. Inventions, 2020. 5(4): p. 56.https://doi.org/10.3390/inventions5040056
54. Bizikova, L., et al., WEF GUIDEBOOK MARCH 2014 The Water-Energy-Food Nexus and Agricultural Investment: A sustainable development guidebook ii International Institute for Sustainable Development. 2014, Manitoba, Canada: International Institute for Sustainable Development.https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.2200.6566
55. Melo, F.P.L., et al., Adding forests to the water–energy–food nexus. Nature Sustainability, 2021. 4(2): p. 85-92.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-00608-z
56. Machell, J., et al., The water energy food nexus – challenges and emerging solutions. Environmental Science Water Research & Technology, 2015(1).https://doi.org/10.1039/C4EW90001D
57. Punys, P., et al., Tools for Small Hydropower Plant Resource Planning and Development: A Review of Technology and Applications. Energies, 2011. 4(9): p. 1258-1277
58. Mehari, K.A., GIS Based Assessment of Hydropower Potential (A Case Study on Gumara River Basin). American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences, 2020. 69(1): p. 26-44
59. Pandey, A., D. Lalrempuia, and S.K. Jain, Evaluation du potentiel hydroélectrique utilisant la technologie spatiale et le modèle SWAT pour la rivière Mat, dans le sud Mizoram, Inde. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 2015. 60(10): p. 1651-1665.https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2014.943669
60. Rospriandana, N. and M. Fujii, Assessment of small hydropower potential in the Ciwidey subwatershed, Indonesia: A GIS and hydrological modeling approach. Hydrological Research Letters, 2017. 11(1): p. 6-11.https://doi.org/10.3178/hrl.11.6
61. Sammartano, V., L. Liuzzo, and G. Freni, Identification of potential locations for run-of-river hydropower plants using a GIS-based procedure. Energies, 2019. 12(18).https://doi.org/10.3390/en12183446
62. Thin, K.K., et al., Estimation of run-of-river hydropower potential in the myitnge river basin. Journal of Disaster Research, 2020. 15(3): p. 267-276.https://doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2020.p0267
63. Torrefranca, I., R.E. Otadoy, and A. Tongco, Incorporating Landscape Dynamics in Small-Scale Hydropower Site Location Using a GIS and Spatial Analysis Tool: The Case of Bohol, Central Philippines. Energies, 2022. 15(3).https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031130
64. Areri, D.C. and T.S. Bibi, Identification of small-scale hydropower potential sites using geographic information system and hydrologic modeling technique: Awata river, Genale Dawa basin, Ethiopia. Energy Reports, 2023. 9: p. 2405-2419.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.01.081
65. Ali, F., et al., Assessment of small hydropower in Songkhla Lake Basin, Thailand using GIS-MCDM. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 2023. 9(1).https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-022-00788-w
66. Butchers, J., S. Williamson, and J. Booker, Micro-hydropower in Nepal: Analysing the project process to understand drivers that strengthen and weaken sustainability. Sustainability (Switzerland), 2021. 13(3): p. 1-16.https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031582
67. Adeyeye, K., et al., Socio-technical viability framework for micro hydropower in group water-energy schemes. Energies, 2021. 14(14).https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144222
68. Marliansyah, R., et al., Optimization potential analysis of micro-hydro power plant (MHPP) from river with low head. Energy Procedia, 2018. 153: p. 74-79.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2018.10.021
69. Rumbayan, M. and R. Rumbayan, Feasibility Study of a Micro Hydro Power Plant for Rural Electrification in Lalumpe Village, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Sustainability, 2023. 15(19).https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914285
70. Nugroho, H.Y.S.H., I.N. Dewi, and M.K. Sallata, Pengelolaan Daerah Aliran Sungai (DAS) dan Konservasi Tanah & Air, Menjaga Keseimbangan Air dan Tanah. 2023, Yogyakarta: Penerbit Andi
71. Kumar, R., et al., Development of maintenance cost correlation for high head run of river small hydro power plant. International Journal of Ambient Energy, 2022. 43(1): p. 3124-3137.https://doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2020.1804447
72. IRENA, RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: COST ANALYSIS SERIES-Hydropower, I.R.E. Agency, Editor. 2012, IRENA: Bonn, Germany. p. 1-44
73. Setyorini, V.P. Rehabilitasi hutan dan konservasi dapat anggaran tertinggi pada 2021. 2020 [cited 2024 9 Juli 2024]; 23 September 2020:[Available from: https://www.antaranews.com/berita/1743885/rehabilitasi-hutan-dan-konservasi-dapat-anggaran-tertinggi-pada-2021.
74. Yunardy, S., et al., Rancangan Teknis Rehabilitasi Hutan Lindung Meranti Sungai Merah di KPHP Meranti – Provinsi, Provinsi Sumatera Selatan. 2017, Biodiversity and Climate Change Project (BIOCLIME), GIZ-KLHK: Palembang
75. PPID Provisi Sumatera Barat Kerangka Acuan Kerja (KAK) Kegiatan Pembuatan Tanaman Tahun 2019. 2019, Pemerintah Provinsi Sumatera Barat: Padang